What is limonene? The citrus terpene found in cannabis

The distinctive scent of citrus fruits such as lemons, limes, oranges, and grapefruits is attributed to a natural compound known as limonene. Found within the oils of numerous plants, limonene is widely utilised for its fresh, fruity aroma in perfumes, cleaning products, and cosmetics.

With over a decade of hands-on experience in the cannabis and hemp industry — including work in CBD product development and terpene profiling — I have gained valuable insights into the compounds that make these plants so remarkable. Among the most notable are terpenes — the elements responsible for the unique aromas and flavours of plants, and key contributors to how humans and animals perceive and interact with them.

In this article, I will focus on limonene—what it looks like as a chemical, where it comes from, how it affects people and animals, and how it’s used in different products. I’ll also talk about why learning about limonene is important for those of us interested in cannabis, hemp, and plant science

Prefer watching over reading? This video covers the key points from the article:

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Key takeaways

• Limonene is a widely occurring terpene known for its strong citrus aroma.
• It is found in the essential oils of citrus fruits and several other plants.
• Limonene is commonly used in fragrances, cleaning agents, and cosmetics.
• It is one of the major terpenes present in certain cannabis strains.
• Interest in limonene has increased due to its potential functional properties.

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What are terpenes?

Terpenes are a broad class of organic compounds naturally produced by a variety of plants and some animals. These compounds are best known for creating the rich array of scents and aromas found in nature.

For example, the refreshing aroma of pine trees comes from a terpene called pinene, while the calming fragrance of lavender is attributed to linalool.

In plants, terpenes serve several purposes, including attracting pollinators or acting as a defence mechanism against predators. These aromatic compounds contribute significantly to the distinctive character of many botanicals, influencing not only their scent but also their interaction with the environment.

What are terpenes?

Brief overview of limonene

Limonene is one particular type of terpene that is commonly found in citrus fruits like lemon, lime or oranges, but also occurs naturally in several other plant species such as juniper berries, celery, mint, fennel, thyme or cypress trees. It is a colourless liquid that has been used in various products for its characteristic citrus scent.

Limonene is found in cleaning products, deodorant, shampoo, air fresheners, and even in flea and tick repellent for pets. Additionally, it is used as a flavouring agent for food and beverages.

Limonene is classified as a cyclic hydrocarbon, which means it contains both carbon and hydrogen atoms arranged in a ring structure. Its chemical formula is C10H16, which makes it easily soluble in oils or fats but not water.

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Importance of studying limonene

Limonene is a naturally occurring compound recognised for its widespread use in commercial products, particularly within the fragrance and cleaning industries.

Its pleasant scent and solvent properties make it a valuable ingredient in numerous formulations, highlighting the need for a comprehensive understanding of its characteristics and applications.

Beyond its industrial relevance, examining the sources and extraction methods of limonene holds environmental significance. How limonene is derived can influence sustainability practices, prompting further research into eco-friendly production techniques.

Studying limonene also contributes to a broader exploration of terpenes as a class of compounds. By deepening the understanding of limonene’s properties, researchers can gain insights into the functional roles of terpenes across various natural and commercial contexts, supporting advancements in multiple fields.

Chemical structure and properties of limonene

Limonene is a naturally occurring terpene that belongs to the class of cyclic monoterpenes. Monoterpenes are a group of organic compounds that are commonly found in plants and have a characteristic chemical formula of C10H16.

They are composed of two isoprene units connected head-to-tail, and limonene has the molecular formula C10H16 with a molar mass of 136.24 g/mol. The structure of limonene consists of two chiral centres, which makes it optically active, meaning that it can rotate plane-polarised light.

According to research published in the journal Environmental Science & Technology, the molecule has two enantiomers, (R)-limonene and (S)-limonene, which have the same chemical formula but different spatial arrangements of atoms. (R)-Limonene is more commonly found in nature than its counterpart.

Limonene is a clear liquid with a strong citrus aroma and taste. It has low solubility in water but dissolves readily in organic solvents such as ethanol or hexane.

Sources of limonene in nature

Limonene is found naturally in many plant species, including citrus fruits (lemons, oranges), peppermint, rosemary, juniper berries, fennel seeds, coriander seeds, and pine needles. It is most abundant in the essential oils extracted from citrus peels. In plants, limonene serves several functions, such as attracting pollinators or repelling herbivores.

A 2021 scientific research published in the Journal of Horticultural Sciences shows that high concentration of limonene in citrus fruits also acts as an antimicrobial agent by inhibiting the growth of bacteria and fungi on the fruit's surface.

Apart from its widespread presence in plants, limonene can also be found in some insects and animals, such as ants or the red fox.

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Extraction methods of limonene

Limonene essential oil is commonly extracted from citrus peels using various methods such as cold pressing, steam distillation, or solvent extraction. Cold pressing involves mechanically separating the oil from the peel, while steam distillation involves heating the peel and collecting the oil vapour.

Solvent extraction uses chemicals such as hexane to dissolve limonene and other aromatic compounds from the peel. The choice of method depends on several factors such as yield, purity, and cost.

Cold pressing and steam distillation are considered more environmentally friendly than solvent extraction since they do not require harmful chemicals. However, solvent extraction yields a higher concentration of limonene than other methods.

Apart from essential oils, limonene can also be obtained through chemical synthesis or fermentation using microorganisms such as yeasts or bacteria. These methods are used mainly for industrial purposes rather than for producing food or cosmetics-grade limonene.

Limonene in cannabis

Beyond its aromatic signature, limonene plays a role in differentiating the sensory appeal of cannabis cultivars.

Aroma profile and sensory attributes

Limonene gives certain cannabis strains a unique citrus smell. It's often compared to lemon, orange, or grapefruit. But just because a strain smells citrusy doesn't mean it has a lot of limonene. You need lab tests to know for sure.

The smell of limonene can change based on the plant's genetics, how it's grown, and how it's processed after harvest. These factors can affect how much limonene is in the final product and how we experience its scent.

Interaction with other cannabis compounds

Limonene is just one of many terpenes in cannabis. It might work together with cannabinoids and other plant parts. This mix can change how the cannabis plant feels and smells.

The exact ways these compounds interact are still being studied. It's important to learn more about how limonene works with other parts of the cannabis plant.

What is cannabis?

Industrial uses of limonene

Limonene is a versatile compound widely incorporated across multiple industries due to its aromatic qualities and solvent capabilities. Found in products ranging from cleaning agents to personal care items, it contributes both functional and sensory benefits. 

Fragrance ingredients in consumer products

Limonene, known for its bright citrus scent, is widely utilised as a fragrance component across a variety of consumer goods. Its aromatic qualities make it a preferred addition in items such as perfumes, soaps, and other personal care products. This natural compound contributes to creating appealing sensory experiences in these formulations.

Solvent for cleaning products

Limonene also plays a significant role as a solvent in cleaning formulations. Valued for its effective oil-dissolving properties and lower environmental impact compared to traditional petrochemical-based solvents, it is frequently incorporated into products such as degreasers, furniture polishes, and carpet cleaners.

Its use aligns with growing interest in alternatives that offer strong performance while supporting more sustainable practices.

Components in cosmetics and personal care products

In cosmetic and personal care items, limonene serves multiple functions. Beyond its aromatic contribution, it aids in blending ingredients smoothly within formulations like lotions, shampoos, and bath products. Its versatility enhances both the sensory and functional qualities of these goods.

Personal perspective

Being closely involved in hemp cultivation and CBD production has given me a practical understanding of how aromatic compounds like terpenes do far more than simply add scent. From my experience, limonene stands out — not only for its bright, citrus-like notes but also for the way it interacts with other plant compounds to influence the character of different hemp varieties.

Over the years, through research and direct work with cultivation practices, I have come to appreciate how vital it is to understand terpenes properly. Limonene provides a perfect example of how nature weaves complexity into something that might appear deceptively simple.

Whether collaborating with growers to preserve terpene profiles or contributing to the development of new product lines, I have consistently seen how a thorough understanding of plant chemistry — particularly compounds like limonene — is just as essential as the practical skills involved in cultivation.

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